What Happened To Hillary?

An internist writes to Rod Dreher:

The most likely diagnosis – in my mind – an acute cardiac arrhythmia – either ventricular tachycardia – or more likely atrial fibrillation with a rapid ventricular response. A FIB with RVR is very very commonly associated with people feeling flushed or overheated – for quite extended periods of time – dizziness and nausea are also possible. When they exert themselves – it is not unusual at all for them to have complete syncope like she appeared to do today. If not afib with RVR – it is possible there could have been some other supraventricular tachycardia – there are several different types.

(A side note – this is NOT without precedent in modern American presidential history – If you will recall the incident where George H W Bush stood up and vomited all over the Prime Minister of Japan at a state dinner. That incident was precipitated by exactly this – AFIB with RVR.)

Why am I gravely concerned about this diagnosis?

In my experience as a physician – this can happen at any time – however – it typically and often happens at times of great stress. Cardiac arrhthymias can be very easy to control – or very difficult to control. However – this has often meant “retirement” for my business executive patients down the years – the syncopal events can simply happen at very inopportune times and cause all kinds of havoc for the person and his/her company. This is NOT the type of thing that I would want my President to have during a very stressful time.

My fear is that it is fully known what is wrong with her – and this is being hidden from the American public.

By the way – the diagnosis of “pneumonia” being put forth by her physician – Dr. Bardack – is just simply imbecile. A patient who would have this kind of event with pneumonia – would NOT be up and walking around an hour later. If this type of thing happens during pneumonia or any other infection, the patient is almost always suffering from sepsis – and not up and walking. Again – this is imbecile. Third year medical students know better than this.

By the way – as an internist – I have been very very concerned about the reporting of the physicians covering Trump and Clinton. There is something clearly mentally wrong with Trump’s personal physician. I am not sure what is wrong with that guy – but something clearly ails him. The scrutiny there was deserved and as of yet has not been answered even remotely by the Trump campaign. For the life of me – I do not know why there has not been equal attention on Dr. Bardack – Mrs. Clinton’s physician. It has been known for a few weeks to internists in America connected to social media THAT Dr. BARDACK IS NOT BOARD-CERTIFIED by the American Board of Internal Medicine. If you look at the website for the American Board of Internal Medicine – and look her up – abim.org – you will find that SHE IS NOT BOARD-CERTIFIED. Why would Mrs. Clinton release a medical statement from a non-Board Certified physician? I have been puzzled by the fact that the national press has made such a deal about the failings of Trump’s physician (rightly so) – but chirping crickets about the obvious board issues with Dr. Bardack. Any ideas about that?

I have no doubt that Mrs. Clinton may have been diagnosed with pneumonia on Friday. That is entirely possible. 70 year olds have pneumonia all the time. My point is that pneumonia in and of itself – WOULD NEVER make someone do what happened today. I am fully aware of walking pneumonia – and indeed – by definition – it is “walking”. It is a type of pneumonia caused by very specific organism(s) that are much different than those types that will put you in the hospital. The point being – walking pneumonia will produce ill symptoms – often a cough and overall malaise – but will never ever cause a syncope like episode. Pneumonia or reaction to antibiotics simply do not produce what happened today in the absence of many other grave symptoms – and believe me people would not be walking through a parking lot with these symptoms.

I want to clarify the cardiac arrhythmia issue as well. AFIB with RVR is but one of many types of rhythm problems that could be going on – it is by far the most common therefore the most likely. This is what happens when people have afib: the atria – the top chambers of the heart – are beating in total chaos. Normally – your AV node protects the bottom part – ventricles – or pumping chambers from being exposed to the chaos. You can go for long times months even years without any problems at all. However, ever so often the AV node fails in its protection – the chaos from above is transported to the ventricles below and suddenly the bottom of the heart is beating 150, 160 whatever. Just think how you feel after 15 minutes on a treadmill. Running hard. Heart rate of 150 – light-headed and short of breath. Now imagine that you get off the treadmill – and your heart just keeps right on going at 150. In about 10 minutes you will begin to feel very bad. This is manifested in different ways by different people. Shortness of breath is very common. The feeling of being flushed or hot is very common. Nausea and vomiting are very very common. But your heart will not slow down. After several minutes of this – even the most simple exertion like walking – can lead to such low blood pressure that you will have syncope (pass out). That is why AFIB with RVR is so high on the differential diagnosis of the tape I saw today.

Something else of concern that has been running through my mind since I saw that tape is yet another diagnosis that I neglected to put in the initial discussion. This is EXACTLY how people will react if they have an implantable defibrillator and it fires. This would be the same as having the big paddles put on you in the ER – and shocked. Over the past 20 years or so – we have been putting “paddles” directly into patients chest that fire and shock them whenever the computer that is attached to them perceives there is a problem. These patients would already have a diagnosis of a cardiac rhythm problem. One of two things in my experience happens. 1) The rhythm problem comes out of nowhere – and the patient is shocked. They would seem to drop to the ground instantly 2) Often, the rhythm problem is lurking for several minutes before the shock occurs. It all depends on the diagnosis and the settings of the device. But the patient will often feel very very weak and tired, dizzy, hot and light-headed in the seconds/minutes before the device fires. When it does fire however – most of the time – the patient goes down temporarily – just like Mrs. Clinton did today.

Will someone ask her please if she has a defibrillator in her chest? This may or may not be so – but do you want someone who can be shocked like that in charge of the country in a crisis?

I want to for personal reasons address concerns about my ethics in some of the above comments.

I agree – no diagnosis should ever be made without the patient being right in front of you. And many of the tapes and videos used in the past month about Mrs. Clinton’s health have been “out there”. I am not making a diagnosis on her – I am offering up medical facts about what could have caused something like this to occur. Common things occur commonly. This video today is clearly not from the lunatic fringe like some of the others I have seen this past few weeks. I am gravely concerned about this after what I saw today – and I wholeheartedly believe the voters need to know the whole story – whatever that may be – and what the campaign is telling and putting forth makes little sense medically speaking. As is so often in politics – it is the lies and confusion put forward to cover things up – that gets people in trouble.

I like most of America am absolutely dismayed with the choices we have this year for President. This video today did not help decrease my concern about this election.

Another question I have – and about this I need to be perfectly clear. Had I seen that video on any of my patients – and believe me – having things caught on video is actually very common in medicine today – my very very first reaction would be GET THAT PATIENT TO THE ER – I AM MEETING YOU THERE. Why on earth was Mrs. Clinton not rushed to the hospital???? — That issue alone brings up all sorts of concerning thoughts in my mind..

And about her personal physician – Dr. Raback. In my haste – to get the previous comment done – and typing quickly – I did not fully convey her status with the Board of Internal Medicine. (This is really in the deep woods) If you care to do some research about this issue – Board Certification and its maintenance is HIGHLY CONTROVERSIAL among internists now. (Please see drwes.blogspot.com for full details). She is listed as CERTIFIED – but NOT PARTICIPATING in MAINTENANCE. That means that she has made the decision not to maintain her certification. She passed her initial exams and was certified at some point in the past – but is not participating in maintaining this going forward. At some point – this will put her at great risk of being dropped from insurance panels, etc. This is a huge thorn in the side of the internal medicine community at this point. The whole thing is a total mess. It is an example of government regulation gone horribly awry. But the fact of the matter is that she is not participating in her continued certification – There are those in internal medicine who would think that to be not a good thing.

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The New Yorker

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Research Proves Google Manipulates Millions to Favor Clinton

REPORT: In this exclusive report, distinguished research psychologist Robert Epstein explains the new study and reviews evidence that Google’s search suggestions are biased in favor of Hillary Clinton. He estimates that biased search suggestions might be able to shift as many as 3 million votes in the upcoming presidential election in the US.

Biased search rankings can swing votes and alter opinions, and a new study shows that Google’s autocomplete can too. A scientific study I published last year showed that search rankings favoring one candidate can quickly convince undecided voters to vote for that candidate — as many as 80 percent of voters in some demographic groups. My latest research shows that a search engine could also shift votes and change opinions with another powerful tool: autocomplete. Because of recent claims that Google has been deliberately tinkering with search suggestions to make Hillary Clinton look good, this is probably a good time both to examine those claims and to look at my new research.

As you will see, there is some cause for concern here. In June of this year, Sourcefed released a video claiming that Google’s search suggestions — often called “autocomplete” suggestions — were biased in favor of Mrs. Clinton. The video quickly went viral: the full 7-minute version has now been viewed more than a million times on YouTube, and an abridged 3-minute version has been viewed more than 25 million times on Facebook. The video’s narrator, Matt Lieberman, showed screen print after screen print that appeared to demonstrate that searching for just about anything related to Mrs. Clinton generated positive suggestions only. This occurred even though Bing and Yahoo searches produced both positive and negative suggestions and even though Google Trends data showed that searches on Google that characterize Mrs. Clinton negatively are quite common — far more common in some cases than the search terms Google was suggesting. Lieberman also showed that autocomplete did offer negative suggestions for Bernie Sanders and Donald Trump. “The intention is clear,” said Lieberman. “Google is burying potential searches for terms that could have hurt Hillary Clinton in the primary elections over the past several months by manipulating recommendations on their site.”

Google responded to the Sourcefed video in an email to the Washington Times, denying everything. According to the company’s spokesperson, “Google Autocomplete does not favor any candidate or cause.” The company explained away the apparently damning findings by saying that “Our Autocomplete algorithm will not show a predicted query that is offensive or disparaging when displayed in conjunction with a person’s name.”

Since then, my associates and I at the American Institute for Behavioral Research and Technology (AIBRT) — a nonprofit, nonpartisan organization based in the San Diego area — have been systematically investigating Lieberman’s claims. What we have learned has generally supported those claims, but we have also learned something new — something quite disturbing — about the power of Google’s search suggestions to alter what people search for. Lieberman insisted that Google’s search suggestions were biased, but he never explained why Google would introduce such bias. Our new research suggests why — and also why Google’s lists of search suggestions are typically much shorter than the lists Bing and Yahoo show us. Our investigation is ongoing, but here is what we have learned so far…

The three main findings were as follows:

1) Overall, people clicked on the negative items about 40 percent of the time — that’s twice as often as one would expect by chance. What’s more, compared with the neutral items we showed people in searches that served as controls, negative items were selected about five times as often. 2) Among eligible, undecided voters —the impressionable people who decide close elections — negative items attracted more than 15 times as many clicks as neutral items attracted in matched control questions. 3) People affiliated with one political party selected the negative suggestion for the candidate from their own party less frequently than the negative suggestion for the other candidate.

In other words, negative suggestions attracted the largest number of clicks when they were consistent with people’s biases. These findings are consistent with two well-known phenomena in the social sciences: negativity bias and confirmation bias.

Negativity bias refers to the fact that people are far more affected by negative stimuli than by positive ones. As a famous paper on the subject notes, a single cockroach in one’s salad ruins the whole salad, but a piece of candy placed on a plate of disgusting crud will not make that crud seem even slightly more palatable. Negative stimuli draw more attention than neutral or positive ones, they activate more behavior, and they create stronger impressions — negative ones, of course.

In recent years, political scientists have even suggested that negativity bias plays an important role in the political choices we make — that people adopt conservative political views because they have a heightened sensitivity to negative stimuli. Confirmation bias refers to the fact that people almost always seek out, pay attention to, and believe information that confirms their beliefs more than they seek out, pay attention to, or believe information that contradicts those beliefs. When you apply these two principles to search suggestions, they predict that people are far more likely to click on negative search suggestions than on neutral or positive ones — especially when those negative suggestions are consistent with their own beliefs. This is exactly what the new study confirms. Google data analysts know this too. They know because they have ready access to billions of pieces of data showing exactly how many times people click on negative search suggestions. They also know exactly how many times people click on every other kind of search suggestion one can categorize.

To put this another way, what I and other researchers must stumble upon and can study only crudely, Google employees can study with exquisite precision every day. Given Google’s strong support for Mrs. Clinton, it seems reasonable to conjecture that Google employees manually suppress negative search suggestions relating to Clinton in order to reduce the number of searches people conduct that will expose them to anti-Clinton content. They appear to work a bit less hard to suppress negative search suggestions for Mr. Trump, Senator Sanders, Senator Cruz, and other prominent people.

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Hillary’s Path Ahead

Comments at Steve Sailer:

* What do the press/DNC/elites know about Hillary’s health and when did they know it?

* 9/11 anniversary was a huge public appearance that she had to make. Her medical team must have prepped like crazy to get her through the ordeal and she still collapsed.

Huge dilemma for the campaign now with eight weeks to go. They will have zero confidence of her passing muster in public appearances without a radical change in her treatment. But if it’s Parkinson’s, and Huma email researching Provigil points to that, then alt treatments are risky.

This episode will also erode Hillary’s confidence. Good chance team Clinton pulls her out of public appearances. It weakens her poll numbers but doesn’t tank them.

So strategy: hide her for eight weeks and try to devastate Trump with an October surprise. She could still win.

* She would have been contagious from her mouth at least, and she should have worn a mask over mouth and nose, or stood well away from everyone else.

So she can either admit she was hiding the pneumonia and willing to infect others to do it, or admit it wasn’t really pneumonia.

* So is Hillary really prone to illness, or does she just have the worst luck ever, and came down with this pneumonia right before a major public event, in the most crucial few months of her life, just as insane conspiracy theorists (paid by the Kremlin) are spreading totally unfounded rumors about her health?

* Taking 4 day weekends at this point in an election inherently suggests health issues.

* This whole thing was done on the West Wing with MS. Basically the same scenario is playing out in reality.

* Contagiousness aside, simple prudence would indicate staying away from other people in public and not going within ten miles of her two year old granddaughter.

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Democrats Consider Replacing Hillary

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Orthodox Jews Drawn To The Alt-Right

In this recent interview, white nationalist Greg Johnson says: “I had a dinner recently with some new young people who have come into it in the past two years and some people who’ve been around for decades. The contrast could not have been more marked. The people who had been in this for decades were all misfits, socially awkward and weird people, while the young people were all impressive, many of them with recent military careers. People with agency, discipline, organization… There are a large number of people coming into this who are normal. There’s a wind in our sails now.”

“The Jewish Question is a rift in the Alt-Right. The Paleocons have always been friendly with Jews.”

“I’m hearing about young Orthodox Jews are now being drawn into this. They’re reading Chateau Heartiste, sharing Alt-Right memes… They are drawn to something intellectually exciting.”

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Are Secret Service Agents Normally This Fat?

REPORT:

(VERO BEACH, FL) A former Secret Service agent has confirmed the identity of Hillary Clinton’s mysterious ‘medical handler’ as US Secret Service Agent Todd Madison.

The retired Secret Service agent, who spent 20 years protecting America’s top leaders including the Clintons, confirmed by telephone Wednesday that the stocky African American man highlighted by various media outlets, was a man he worked with previously on assignment.

The former Secret Service agent, who requested to remain anonymous due to continuing government service, said that the Secret Service doesn’t have handlers, but agents are trained in emergency trauma care, and will at times bring in contractors to fill specific medical needs.

“Some agents are more true believers than others”, the former Secret Service agent said, meaning that some agents get more involved than others in the political campaigns they are attached to. “This explains the uncommon behavior of him getting up and talking during the speech, he’s a boss, its how Todd handles his detail,” he added.

WASHINGTON POST August 8:

Armed with junk science and old photos, critics question #HillarysHealth

Even when Clinton remained controlled, steady and unsmiling, #HillarysHealth sleuths were ready. Mike Cernovich, a self-help author best known as the attorney for a central figure in the “Gamergate” saga, seized on the speculation about Clinton to ask if Clinton traveled with a private doctor. “Remember when you thought famous people like Michael Jackson and Elvis had good medical care?” he asked. “What’s Clinton on?”

Cernovich’s speculation started with an incident from last week, when Clinton was campaigning in Las Vegas. Mid-speech, she paused and narrowed her eyes to look at protesters. Secret Service Assistant Special Agent in Charge Todd Madison rushed to her side, telling her that the situation was under control, and that she could keep talking.

As was widely reported, Clinton was reacting to a commotion from four animal rights activists. According to Melina Mara, a Washington Post photographer who was shooting at the event, first the activists hoisted their signs; then, one pushed a female protester over the barrier. As Clinton looked on, the protester stumbled and was being hauled back.

To some Clinton fans, it seemed like she had remained steely while a threat was taken care of — a contrast with the way Trump had handled himself when a protester tried to rush him during the primaries.

To Cernovich, it was clear that Clinton was “completely frozen” and “lost control of her executive functions/pre-frontal cortex.” She actually riffed on the protesters, telling them to protest Donald Trump’s sons, who are proud hunters.

But in a follow-up post, Cernovich speculated that Madison was not in fact a Secret Service agent, but a medical professional who must be around her at all times. In his comments on Twitter and at InfoWars, Shkreli speculated that Madison was holding “an Apokyn pen, used to treat Parkinson’s,” in a photo that revealed something in his right hand.

“The media is completely covering up this story,” wrote Cernovich. “We will continue to investigate it aggressively. By the way, my journalism is entirely self-funded.”

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Steve Sailer Last Night: ‘Is There Still Time for Hillary to Drop Out?’

Steve Sailer posted that question on his blog last night, before Hillary’s collapse today.

Comments at Steve Sailer:

* I have this mental image of Steve, ensconced in a dark room late at night, running his spreadsheet data, thoughtfully tapping a pencil against his chin, muttering to himself: “Yes, yes, my models point to a 95% chance of Hillary collapsing at the 9/11 ceremony tomorrow. I’ll make an indirect reference to it in a post a few hours before it happens.”

* Whoa. That video of Hillary falling at a 9/11 event does not look good, especially when seen in the context of her other public episodes. I used to kind of laugh off speculation about Hillary’s health, but I am starting to change my mind. Another couple of strange episodes and it will start looking like a legitimate issue — and not just among us righties. It will start to seriously hurt her in the polls.

I’m surprised more folks haven’t commented on the appearance of her “security van,” which conspicuously resembles one of those mobility vans used to transport seriously disabled people. Maybe I’m just especially attuned to this because I live in a part of Florida that is thick with retirees even by Florida standards, so I’m used to seeing those things puttering around.

* Steve’s post on this topic couldn’t have been more prescient — almost supernaturally so. Steve’s ouija board must be the best on the internet.

It really is a serious question now as to whether Hillary’s going to have to withdraw from the race. I honestly don’t see how she recovers politically from this episode. It’s not just the health issue, it’s the lying and intimidation she and her campaign engaged in before this event. Who will be able to believe anything she and they have to say about her health, or any other topic, after this event? Who will allow themselves to be bullied by them anymore?

Even the shameless media has been embarrassed by all its loud denunciations of a “conspiracy” over her health. It can look stupid, but it can’t look this stupid. It’s trusted by maybe 6% of the population — it can’t allow it to go down to 3%. It’s finally going to have to ask some serious questions.

The real question is how long Hillary will stick it out. It’s certainly possible she’ll take it to the bitter end of Nov 8, and, I think at this point, a very likely loss. But I’ve got to believe she’s going to get great pressure to drop out as early as possible, so that another Dem will have a shot. Yet it’s hard to see how Hillary is going to give up her one shot at the brass ring without a tremendous struggle.

The Democrats and the media are now going to be living in Interesting Times.

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Being white, and a minority, in Georgia

The future. Shame they don’t have a Jewish Community Center they can join.

Boston Globe: A generation ago, this Atlanta suburb was 95 percent white and rural with one little African-American neighborhood that was known as “colored town.’’ But after a tidal wave of Hispanic and Asian immigrants who were attracted to Norcross by cheap housing and proximity to a booming job market, white people now make up less than 20 percent of the population in Norcross and surrounding neighborhoods. It’s a shift so rapid that many of the longtime residents feel utterly disconnected from the place where they raised their children.

“It’s not that much anger, but you don’t feel comfortable knowing that all this is around you,” said Billy Weathers, 79, who has lived in the area for his whole life and doesn’t speak a lick of Spanish.

Many say they feel isolated in their own hometown, pushed to change their ways, to assimilate to the new arrivals instead of the other way around. They resent the shift, even knowing it’s nobody’s fault, really. And they have mostly kept their feelings to themselves. Who, they wonder, would listen to folks like us, anyway?

But this year, in Norcross and places like it, resentment has found its voice. The concerns of a white citizenry feeling displaced have been reinforced by the rhetoric of Republican presidential nominee Donald Trump, who swept most of the state in the Republican primary.

His slogan, “Make America Great Again,” appeals to people here who don’t talk much to their newer neighbors anymore, not out of malice but because they often don’t even share a common language. When Trump talks about building a wall between the United States and Mexico, these largely white, Republicans nod in agreement.

“There used to be a place where we could go out to eat to get southern cooking,” said Billy’s wife, JoAnn Weathers, 79. “Well there’s no more southerners left here. . . . They came from other countries and completely changed our lives.”

It’s an attitude that many in the elites of both parties are quick to dismiss as out-of-date, wrongheaded, and frankly kind of embarrassing. It sounds like racial prejudice, and sometimes is. But to simply ignore or belittle this sense of loss and isolation is to close your eyes and ears to nativist sentiments that predated Trump’s rise, and even if he loses, aren’t going away. The demographic tide all but guarantees it…

Four counties in Georgia signed up for a program that allows local police and sheriffs to check the immigration status of any person charged with a crime, including Gwinnett County, where Norcross is located. Those four places deported more than 1,300 illegal immigrants using the program in the last year, according to federal statistics.

The Georgia General Assembly in 2011 passed a far-reaching law aimed at making conditions inhospitable to undocumented immigrants, with provisions that barred them from using state services and made it easier for more local law enforcement to cooperate with federal immigration officials.

“I want to take care of our people. I don’t want to take care of Mexico’s people who are here illegally,” said state Senator Renee Unterman, whose district is close to Norcross, during the contentious legislative debate. “I’m not spewing hate. I’m just talking about reality.”

Trump won all but four of Georgia’s 159 counties in the March Republican primary on his platform of sealing the border and deporting undocumented immigrants. His margins were high in the Norcross area, especially in the older neighborhoods that have seen an influx of immigrants.

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The Black-White Wage Gap In Brazil

The Economist: Brazil took more African slaves than any other country, and now has nearly three times as many people whose ancestors left Africa in the past few centuries as America does. Yet black faces seldom appear in Brazilian newspapers outside the sports section. Few firms have black bosses. The government has not a single black cabinet member; its predecessor, which called itself progressive, had one—for equality and rights. On average black and mixed-race Brazilians earn 58% as much as whites—a much bigger gap than in America (see chart).

The gap in Brazil, as in America, used to be even wider. Much progress has come from anti-poverty schemes, which, though colour-blind in design, benefit darker-skinned Brazilians more, since they are poorer. More recently, Brazil has started to try explicit racial preferences (known in America as “affirmative action”). But American ideas cannot simply be transplanted to Brazil. Differences in how the two countries were colonised, and how the slave economy operated, led to distinct ideas of what it means to be “black”—and different attitudes to compensatory policies and whom they should target.

Of the 12.5m Africans trafficked across the Atlantic between 1501 and 1866, only 300,000-400,000 disembarked in what is now the United States. They were quickly outnumbered by European settlers. Most whites arrived in families, so interracial relationships were rare. Though white masters fathered many slave children, miscegenation was frowned upon, and later criminalised in most American states.

As black Americans entered the labour market after emancipation, they threatened white incomes, says Avidit Acharya of Stanford University. “One drop” of black blood came to be seen as polluting; laws were passed defining mixed-race children as black and cutting them out of inheritance (though the palest sometimes “passed” as white). Racial resentment, as measured by negative feelings towards blacks, is still greater in areas where slavery was more common. After abolition, violence and racist legislation, such as segregation laws and literacy tests for voters, kept black Americans down.

But these also fostered solidarity among blacks, and mobilisation during the civil-rights era. The black middle class is now quite large. Ms Loras would not seem anomalous in any American city, as she did in São Paulo.

Colour card

In Brazil, unlike America, race has never been black and white. The Portuguese population—700,000 settlers had arrived at the start of the 19th century—was dwarfed by the number of slaves: a total of 4.9m arrived. Portuguese men were encouraged to consort with African women. Since most came without wives, such unions gained some legitimacy. Their offspring, referred to as mulatto, enjoyed a social status above that of pretos. They worked as overseers or artisans, but also doctors, accountants and lawyers. A mulatto, Machado de Assis, was regarded as Brazil’s greatest writer even during his lifetime in the 19th century.

Mixing led to a hotch-potch of racial categories. In 1976 the Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics (IBGE) recorded 134 terms used by Brazilians to describe themselves, mostly by skin colour. Some were extremely specific, such as branca suja (literally “dirty white”) or morena castanha (nut-brown). The national census offers just a few broad categories—as in America, which offers five, though these days America’s also allows you to tick as many as you like and add a self-description. Tiger Woods, a golfer, calls himself “cablinasian” (a portmanteau of caucasian, black, American Indian and Asian).

Both black and white Brazilians have long considered “whiteness” something that can be striven towards. In 1912 João Baptista de Lacerda, a medic and advocate of “whitening” Brazil by encouraging European immigration, predicted that by 2012 the country would be 80% white, 3% mixed and 17% Amerindian; there would be no blacks. As Luciana Alves, who has researched race at the University of São Paulo, explains, an individual could “whiten his soul” by working hard or getting rich. Tomás Santa Rosa, a successful mid-20th-century painter, consoled a dark-skinned peer griping about discrimination, saying that he too “used to be black”.

Though only a few black and mixed-race Brazilians ever succeeded in “becoming white”, their existence, and the non-binary conception of race, allowed politicians to hold up Brazil as an exemplar of post-colonial harmony. It also made it harder to rally black Brazilians round a hyphenated identity of the sort that unites African-Americans. Brazil’s Unified Black Movement, founded in 1978 and inspired by militant American outfits such as the Black Panthers, failed to gain traction. Racism was left not only unchallenged but largely unarticulated.

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